Conflict of Intrest: 2016

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Historically, domestic violence has been framed and understood exclusively as a women’s issue. Domestic abuse affects women, but also has devastating consequences for other populations and societal institutions. Men also can be victims of abuse; children are affected by exposure to domestic violence in their communities. The effects of domestic violence on victims are more typically recognized, but perpetrators also are impacted by their abusive behavior as they stand to lose children, damage relationships, and face legal consequences. Domestic violence cut across every segment of society and occurs in all age, racial, ethnic, socio-economic, sexual orientation, and religious groups. (Heise, 1993) Domestic violence is a social, economic, and health concern that does not discriminate. As a result, communities across the country are developing strategies to stop the violence and provide safe solutions for victims of domestic violence. (Gender Action 1997)

The reality has been that women and girls are exposed to violence virtually all through their lifecycle (Ajala, 2007).Thus, efforts to empower women must address current norms and traditional social customs that legitimize violence against them; a well as legislation and enforcement of laws that discriminate against them. This is necessary in order to reduce the incessant incidence of violence against women in the country. The US Office on Violence against Women (OVW) defines domestic violence as:

“Patterns of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate partner”.

The definition adds that domestic violence can happen to anyone regardless of race, age, sexual orientation, religion, or gender and can take any forms, including physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional, economic, and psychological abuse. (Rennison, 2003).

Domestic violence against women and girls is one of the most pervasive human rights abuse in the world today (Heise, 1993). It has denied several women and girl children their equality, security, dignity, self-worth, and their rights to enjoy fundamental freedoms. It cuts across family circle and society at large. The reality has been that women and girls are exposed to violence virtually all through their lifecycle (Ajala, 2007). The United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993) defines violence against women as:

any act of gender-based violence that results in or, is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty whether occurring in public or in private life.

UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women identifies such violence against women in the family to include battering, sexual abuse of female children in the household, dowry-related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation. In Africa, the major types of gender-based violence that affect parental responsibility include domestic violence, harmful traditional practices such as early marriage, son preference; childhood sexual abuse especially of girls, and female genital mutilation and trafficking in women and forced prostitution. Gender-based violence in Africa disproportionately affects more women than men.

The factors attributing to violence against women include economic factors related to poverty, socio-cultural factors, conflict and insecurity. However, lack of economic autonomy, denial of property rights, lack of access to shelter, illiteracy and fear of losing children, restrict women’s ability to escape domestic violence, to obtain protection and access to the criminal justice system. Poverty, especially, forces women and girls to stay in violence based sexual alliances as a survival strategy thereby increasing their vulnerability to HIV infection, social and cultural practices manifested in unequal power relations between men and women; such as patriarchy, and traditional and harmful practices result in different forms of violence against women.

Violence against women is a fundamental violation of human rights as highlighted in the African Platform for Action and the Dakar Declaration of 1994. The Declaration acknowledged that in most African countries, (including Nigeria), violence against women in domestic, private and public places had reached alarming levels. The Dakar Declaration acknowledges that “women are subjected to violence and to the threat of violence in their daily relationships” and that violence “deprives women bf their ability to achieve full equality” and thereby threatening their safety, freedom and autonomy”.

In Nigeria, it is estimated that one in every five women faces some forms of violence during her lifetime, and these often result to injury or death (Abama and Kwaja, 2009; Okemgbo, et al, 2002). Again, Amnesty International (2005) noted that about two-thirds of women in Nigeria have experienced physical, sexual or psychological violence in the family. The report further noted that women are beaten, punished, raped and even murdered by members of their family. In some cases, vicious acid attacks leave them with horrific disfigurements. Girls and young women are forced into early marriage by parents and relatives. In many communities, the traditional practice of female genital mutilation still continues to traumatize young girls and leave women ‘with lifelong pain, and damage to their health. Also, violence against women is frequently excused and tolerated in communities where women are assigned inferior role, subordinate to the male head of the family and effectively the property of their husbands. Most families in Nigeria, husbands and fathers are responsible for several incidences of domestic violence against, women such as beating, slapping, rape, and murder. There is no doubt that, violence against one member of the family profoundly ‘affects every other person in the home, especially as witnessing violence can have a brutalizing effect, leading to a cycle of violence perpetuated down the generation. However, violence against women in the home is widely regarded as a fact of married life that must be tolerated. This is more pronounced in ‘intimate’ partner relationships such as between husband and wife, or two people, who are in courtship. Perhaps, violence persists because discriminatory practices and laws condone and legalize certain forms of violence against women. For example, dismissive attitudes within the police and an inaccessible justice system compound the failure of the state to protect the rights of women. More so, some abuses are often hidden and ignored because they have been regarded as being in the private domain.

Nevertheless, domestic violence against women is presently recognized as a global issue without social, economic, cultural and regional boundaries (United Nations, 1994). The Federal Ministry of Health (2003) noted that the ‘proportion’ of women and men who justified wife-beating was found to be highest in the north-central zone of Nigeria, and lowest in the south-west zone. The proportion was also found to be higher in rural areas than in towns. This is particularly persistent where families are poor, where’ husbands feel threatened by their wives’ increased independence, or where men regard beating their partners as the only way to resolve their conflict. It has also been, noted that men who grew up m violent households may likely perpetuate the cycle of violence in later relationships, passing on to another generation the perception of violence in the home as acceptable.

However, in Warri ,as well as other major cities in the country, there is hardly a day that passes in which the media (newspaper, television, and radio) do not report incidence of domestic violence against Women. The negative consequence has been frequent divorce, separation between husbands and wives, adultery, lack of love, happiness and harmony in most homes in Warri area. The problem of domestic violence against women cuts across all levels, irrespective of class, education or financial position of family members. Domestic violence against women has several health, human rights and socio-economic impacts on affected women and their families. For example, abused women are more likely to suffer from mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, psychosomatic symptoms, eating problems, and sexual dysfunctions. Also, women who have been sexually abused are at greater risk of having unprotected sex as adolescents and adults and therefore at risk for contracting HIV/AIDS. Affected women may suffer from different reproductive health problems such as STDs, including HIV/AIDS, gynecological problems and unplanned pregnancies. The effects of the violence may also be fatal as a result of intentional homicide, severe injury or suicide (Mutangadura, 2008:8).

Sexual abuse for school children lead to the affected girls dropping out of school. The traditional practice of early marriage also leads to many female children dropping out of school. In all, if gender based violence remains unchecked, there is a perpetuation of gender inequality.

Moreover, children brought up without the influence of mothers can easily turn delinquents and criminals. Yet, little regard has been given to domestic violence against women and girls as abroad social issue, even less effort has been devoted to tackling the underlying causes of violence against women in the family. However, literature indicates that women play a central role in the family unit. More so, they contribute to all the functions of the family such as family creation, economic support, childrearing and family care giving. Therefore, the present of a mother within the family is so important for adequate parental role. The presence of a mother should be recognized and supported in every way. This study is therefore an attempt to examine the incidence of domestic violence against women and its effects on parental responsibility in Warri area of Delta State.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Although there have been efforts and studies for some years now aimed at addressing the problem of violence against women in Africa generally, and Nigeria in particular. There still exists a vast evidence of discriminatory practices and customs against women in the family. In most developed countries, studies on domestic violence against women have been conducted with the aim of having better knowledge and understanding of the implications of violence against women and girls in the family. However, the same is not true for developing countries, Nigeria inclusive. The issue of domestic violence against women and girls is not only a concern in Nigeria, but also in other parts of the world. According to the 2006 census, females constitute over half per cent of the Nigerian population. Out of this 62 % of the female population is aged 15 to 64 years and 43 % of them were married (National Population Commission, 2006).

This shows that majority of Nigerian women are likely to be at risk or have been victims of violence in the family. The family is equated with sanctuary as a place where individuals seek love, safety, security, and shelter. But the evidence shows that it is also a place that imperils lives, and breeds some of the most drastic forms of violence perpetrated against women and girls. Despite the Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), the nature and prevalence of violence against women and girls have not been properly documented and understood. Again, there have not been mechanisms to record complaints of violence against women in the family systematically, in spite of acknowledgement for several years that such monitoring was needed and that women were fearful of bringing complaints to the authorities. The only official records of complaints are made by Nigeria’s National Human Rights Commission, which recorded 45 complaints of violence in the family in the first nine months of 2013. The report indicated that torture and inhuman treatment, wife beating, denial of medical care and forced marriage, as well as desertion by husbands, denial of freedom of worship, denial of inheritance and unauthorized withdrawal of funds were among those issues complained about (NHRC,2013).

The incidence of domestic violence against women and girls cuts across social, economic, cultural and educational background (Parish, et al, 2004), and it is found in both rural and urban communities. Some studies have shown that 20 to 50 per cent of women have suffered beating from a male intimate partner (Heise, 1994). Violence or threat of violence from males has tended to hamper the involvement of women in socio-economic activities. Over the years, intimate partner violence was primarily regarded as spouse abuse, and mostly limited to battering, but the dimensions have now widened. Indeed, several women were unable to protect themselves from unwanted pregnancy and Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) following intimidation, battering, sexual abuse, and rape by male family members — husband, brother and or other male relations. The issue of women empowerment may be a mirage in Nigeria if the problems faced by about half of the population are not properly addressed. Women, in fear of violence, are unable to refuse sex or negotiate for safer sexual practices, and are thus exposed to all kinds of infections including dreaded Human Immune-deficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS). They are also vulnerable to sexual abuse and molestation. Despite the pervasiveness and persistence of the problem of domestic violence against women and girls in the family, the issue has not been given adequate research attention. The importance of establishing the prevalence and associated patterns of nature of violence against women and its effect on parental responsibility in terms of playing their motherly role, upbringing of children among others, are said to be very crucial to addressing women predicaments in the country. Therefore this research work is an attempt to close the gap in literature by addressing how the parental responsibility in the family is relegated to suffer over domestic violence against women, using Warri metropolis as a study.

1.3 Research Questions

The following research questions are considered for this study

(a) Who are the perpetrators of domestic violence against women and what motive their action?

(b) What are the nature and causes of violence against women in the family?

(d) What measures should be put in place to reduce the incidence of domestic violence against women to ensure adequate parental role in the family?

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to investigate the incidence of domestic violence against women and its influence on parental responsibility, with special reference to Warri Metropolis. The general objectives include:

(a) To identify the main Perpetrators of domestic violence against women and what could be attributed to their actions.

(b) To find out the causes domestic violence against women in the family.

(d) To make appropriate recommendations on how to reduce the incidence of domestic violence against women to the barest minimum in order to ensure adequate parental responsibility in Nigeria.

1.5 Justification for the Study.

The rational for the investigation of violence, against women in Nigeria is justified following the negative effects violence has on the parental role in the modern family. Violence against women is a measure on societal inequalities. Although females may use physical force against their male counterparts either husbands or otherwise, women are generally considered the main victims of family violence (Galindo and Serrano, 1994). Historically, violence against women dates back to patriarchy where husbands and fathers controlled everything. In patriarchal societies, husbands demand obedience and wives suffer battering and other forms of violence for challenging their position. Remarkably, poorly educated men take advantage of their physical strength and solve family problems with their fist (Tilbrook,E et’el).

Furthermore, the prevalence; nature and consequence of domestic violence against women in Nigeria in generally and Warri in particular, are yet to be established. In this study, it is argued that, there is the need to carry out a systematic analysis of the nature, characteristics, and the prevalence as well as the causes of the problem under study. This is with a view to providing a pragmatic and sustainable solution to a pandemic social issue. This is the major concern of this study.

1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study examines the nature and prevalence of domestic violence against women and its effects on parental responsibility with particular reference to two Local Government Areas in metropolitan city of Warri, namely: Udu and Uvwie local government area. The analyses in this study are based on information elicited from respondents from the two selected local government areas in Warri. The concern of this study is about prevalent incidence of domestic violence against women and girls and their impact on their parental responsibility. Violence is sometimes inflicted against men by women, but they are very minimal compared to that of women. The unit of analysis in this study consists of women and men. This is as a result that violent relationships may likely be less stable than non-violent relationships.

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

Violence

This is the use of threat or force which may be physical, emotional or mental by one person (or people) against others. It results in pain, injury, humiliation and/or degradation.

Domestic Violence

This is any act of violence that is committed against a woman or girl simply because she was born female. These are likely to result in physical, sexual or emotional suffering to the women. Violence includes threats as well as use of force.

Family Violence

This involves all forms of violence (physical, psychological, sexual, and economical) that manifest within the family irrespective of gender difference.

Intimate partner abuse

This involves the physical, sexual, and/or psychological abuse to an individual perpetrated by a current or former intimate partner.

Family stability

This refers to the state of peace, unity and harmony within the family.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAME WORK

2.0 Introduction

This chapter examines some of the literature and materials related to the concept of violence against women in the family. It also critically highlighted on some theories that could help to investigate the variables in order to make a comprehensive understanding of the concept.

2.1 The Concept of Domestic Violence against Women

There is no universally agreed terminology for referring to gender-based violence and violence against women (Baker, 2007). Many commonly used terms have different meanings across regions, and derive from a range of theoretical perspectives. The terms ‘gender-based violence and violence against women’ are often used interchangeably; however gender-based violence can also refer to violence against men. However, it is necessary to distinguish gender-based violence from other forms of violence. Gender-based violence refers to all types of violence targeting a specific group or individual where the victim’s gender is a primary motive or risk factor. This is different to indiscriminate violence where the victim’s gender is irrelevant. Both men and women can be victims of gender-based violence. But, the term ‘domestic violence’ often refers to as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, child abuse or intimate partner violence is broadly defined as a pattern of abusive behaviors by one or both partners in an intimate relationship such as marriage, dating, family, friends or cohabitation (Lynn, 2004).

Violence against women constitutes a violation of women’s rights and fundamental freedoms. The United Nations (1993) Declaration on the elimination of violence against women defines Violence against women as:

any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty whether occurring in public or private life.

From this definition, we can say that domestic violence against women is aspect of gender-based violence, which is as a result of abusive behaviors (physical, sexual or emotional abuse) perpetrated by one partner upon the other to gain and maintain control. The World Health Organization (2002) also defines ‘partner violence’ as any behavior within an intimate relationship that causes physical, psychological or sexual harm, including acts of physical aggression, such as slapping, hitting, kicking and beating; psychological abuse, such as intimidation, constant belittling and humiliation, forced intercourse and other forms of sexual coercion; various controlling behaviors, such as isolating a person from the family and friends, monitoring their movements, and restricting their access to information or assistance. Violence against women committed by intimate partners is often understood as domestic violence or spousal abuse. ‘Intimate partner violence’ overwhelmingly involves a female victim and a male perpetrator. In most domestic assaults against women in the world, the husband is the aggressor (Jalal, 1998:7) Forms of intimate partner violence extend beyond physical violence to psychological and economic violence.

All forms of sexual violence against women and girls cover the broad spectrum of sexual assault, including sexual harassment through to rape by a relative, friend, acquaintance, neighbor, work colleague or stranger in any setting. The most egregious form of this violence is gang rape.

Globally, men experience higher levels of physical violence than women as a result of war, gang related activity, Street violence, and suicide, while women and girls are more likely to be assaulted or killed by someone they know, such as an intimate partner (Bott, Morrison, and Ellsberg, 2005). This review uses the term domestic violence against women for two reasons. First, it highlights the fact that it is women who overwhelmingly experience gender-based violence. Second, it distinguishes domestic violence against women from male-to-male violence. But serious, male- to-male violence is not generally ‘deeply rooted in structural relationships of inequality’ (Garcia Moreno, Jansen, and Ellsberg, Heise, and Watts, 2004).

However, with the global recognition of violence against women in the 1990s, many policymakers and policy documents use the term ‘violence against women’ and ‘domestic violence’ interchangeably, or, while acknowledging the violence against women, focus almost entirely on domestic violence in terms of policy and intervention. It includes cases of rape, battering, homicide, incest, and psychological abuse, forced prostitution, trafficking .in women, sexual harassment, genital mutilation, and dowry-related murder. (Heise, 1993:171).

Violence against women stems from gender inequality and discrimination. Effectively combating violence against women requires a proper understanding of the phenomenon. It involves a product of complex interactions between risk and protective factors operating at the individual, relationship, community and societal levels. These factors may vary between different settings and forms of violence, and care must be taken to understand the cultural context of each setting (Bott, Morrison, and Ellsberg, 2005: 15).

Indeed, violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal/power relationships between men and women” and as one of the “crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men”. Indeed, violence is rooted in the systematic institutionalized day-to-day experiences of power imbalance. Thus, the social groups in any society that do not possess equal power have little control over their lives and are perpetually victims or targets of physical and sexual violence, discrimination, harassment and poverty. Madunagu (2007:53) also agreed that violence against women results from the unequal power relations between men and women following unequal distribution of power in the society. It is different from other forms of violence in the sense that it arises from the only fact of being female. Hence, violence against women and girls is gender-based. Unlike other forms of vio1ence, violence against women is also sexual and mental, apart from being physical. It occurs in every community, all social, cultural, economic, and religious groups. At the societal level, ‘‘violence against women is most common within cultures where gender roles are strictly defined and enforced, where masculinity is closely associated with toughness, male honor, or dominance; where punishment of women and children is accepted, and where violence, is a standard way to resolve conflicts (Heise, et al., 1999; Jewkes, 2002). While abuse occurs in all socioeconomic settings, poverty and stress associated with poverty contribute to intimate partner violence (Jewkes, 2002).

The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999) states that discrimination against women is not allowed. The section on Fundamental Human Rights also noted that no Nigerian should be discriminated for reasons of his or her ethnic group, place of origin, circumstances of birth, sex, religion or political opinion. Thus, violence against women includes any act of gender violence which discriminates against women. Violence against women is thus unconstitutional in Nigeria and should be illegal in any of its forms.

In Nigeria, just like most other countries, the Criminal Code and the Penal Code punish several offences of violence, whether directed t women or at men. This includes assaults (like slapping or beating), manslaughter and murder. Assault is when any person either threatens or strikes, touches or otherwise applies force of any kind to someone else, whether directly or indirectly, without their consent. If consent is obtained by threat or deceit, it is assault. Applying force includes any substance or thing whatsoever, if it leads to injury or personal discomfort. If the

Application of force leads to grievous bodily harm or is against public policy, then; it is assault whether or not the victim consented. Unlawful assault refers to where there is application of force by one person to another, although it may be done with the consent of that other person. The punishments for assault range from imprisonment from one year to three years. Assault with intent to commit an unnatural offence carries a penalty of up to 14 years imprisonment (Nigeria Criminal Code. Sections, 360). This refers to an assault where sodomy (anal intercourse) is intended.

2.2 Forms of Domestic Violence against Women

2.2.1 Physical Violence against Women

Physical violence against women involves wife beating or battering.

• Female genital mutilation; fighting, beating and even injuring women, especially in matters concerning choice of husbands, or during disagreements.

• Rape, which means forcing women to have sexual intercourse against their will.

• Maltreatment of house-girls or nannies, making women to have dangerous diseases like AIDS which can kill them. This can happen when a sick person who is aware of his sickness maintains close contacts with women or girls; forcing women or girls to abort pregnancies either against their will or without the advice of medical doctors; and marking different parts of the skin of women with blades, knives or other dangerous materials.

2.2.2 Psychological Violence against Women

Psychological violence against women is the least visible kind of violence and hence, the most difficult to detect. Indeed, verbal abuse; humiliation, threats, harassment and confinement can be more harmful than physical attacks insofar as they seriously undermine the victim’s mental health This form of violence also includes the following:

· Threat to use force against women in the forms of intimidation, shouting, abuses or using forceful language for the purpose of instilling fear in them.

· Threatening women (e.g. by shouting or using forceful language) for the purpose of making them do what they would not do or agree to bad desires and intentions.

• Harassing women or not allowing them their rights to choose, express themselves, or denying them freedom of association.

· Putting girls and women in slavery or bondage and, therefore, denying them their basic human rights and freedom.

• Maintaining attitudes which discriminate against women (e g in the family, work places, schools, and public places).

2.2.3 Sexual Violence against Women

This includes sexual aggression, conjugal rape and incest, among others. Sexual aggression is any sexual act endured under duress. It also involves fondling or otherwise interfering against the will of women; and such should be punishable offence. Also, women may be forced to have sex against their will or be handled roughly during sex or rape by their partners. In many countries, unfortunately, violence in sexual relations within the couple is not considered as rape in the criminal sense of the term. A few countries are beginning to accept that rape within the couple is a crime, while others consider that husbands have the right to unlimited sexual access to their Under incest, the husband or any other member of the family may force sexual relations on the children of the family (Mazumdar, et al., 1995:1866-18-78).

Rape can happen anywhere- in the home, in the work place, on the street or on the farm, in schools and at social occasions.

2.2.4 Structural violence

Structural violence is often underestimated as it is less obvious and less direct than physical violence. It includes any situation where a woman is demeaned simply for being a woman, when she is deprived of her most fundamental rights, for example, such as the right to work, to have her own bank account, etc. Inequalities such as these simply encourage men to behave violently towards women.

2.2.5 Economic violence

Economic violence exists, when women are deprived of resources or essentials, despoiled or kept under strict control such as:

• Using money or other worldly materials like expensive cars to make women and girls to commit unacceptable sexual acts like having sex with animals.

2.3 Causes of domestic violence against women

There is no one single factor to account for violence perpetrated against women. However, research has focused on the inter-relatedness of various factors that should improve the understanding of the problem within different cultural contexts.

(a) Social Factors

Several complex and interconnected institutionalized social and cultural factors have kept women particularly vulnerable to the violence directed at them, all of them manifestations of historically unequal power-relations between men and women. Some of these factors that contribute to the unequal to the unequal power relations include: socio-economic forces, the family institution where power relations are enforced, fear of and control over female sexuality, belief in the inherent superiority of males, and legislation and cultural sanctions that have traditionally denied women and children an independent legal and social status.

In Warri, some of the causes of domestic violence against women by their intimate partners are often as a result of excessive consumption of alcohol and other drugs. This has also been noted as a factor in provoking aggressive and violent male behaviour towards women and children. Another survey of domestic violence in Moscow reveals that half the cases of physical abuse are associated with the husband’s excessive alcohol consumption (UNICEF, 1999)

Economic Factors

Lack of economic resources in most cities including Warri metropolitan area, is capable of underpinning women’s vulnerability to violence and their difficulty in extricating themselves from a violent relationship. The nexus between violence and lack of economic resources and dependence is circular. On the one hand, the threat and fear of violence keeps women from seeking employment, or, at best, compels them to accept low-paid, home-based exploitative labour. And on the other, without economic independence, women usually have no power to escape from an abusive relationship (Schuler, Hashemi, Riley, and Akhter, 1996:1729-1742).

In Warri as well as other places in Nigeria, the economic policy of structural adjustment, which was introduced in the 1990s helped to intensify all sorts of violence including domestic violence against women because of the high level of poverty and unemployment, which meant that most families cannot afford to meet up with the basic needs of the family. Thus, with increases in poverty, unemployment, hardship, income inequality, stress, and alcohol abuse, there is increased violence in society in general, including violence against women. These factors also act indirectly, to raise women’s vulnerability by encouraging more risk-taking behaviour, more alcohol and drug abuse, the breakdown of social support networks, and the economic dependence of women on their partners (UNICEF, 1999).

(c ) Cultural Factors

Cultural ideologies - both in industrialised and developing countries -provide ‘legitimacy’ for violence against women in certain circumstances. Religious and historical traditions in the past have sanctioned the chastising and beating of wives. The physical punishment of wives has been particularly sanctioned under the notion of entitlement and ownership of women. Male control of family wealth inevitably places decision-making authority in male hands, leading to male dominance and proprietary rights over women and girls. The concept of ownership, in turn, legitimizes control over women’s sexuality, which in many law codes has been deemed essential to ensure patrilineal inheritance. Traditional norms in these societies allow the killing of ‘errant’ daughters, sisters and wives suspected of defiling the honour of the family by indulging in forbidden sex, or marrying and divorcing without the consent of the family.

(d) Legal Factors

Lack of legal protection, particularly within the sanctity of the home, is a strong factor in perpetuating violence against women. Until recently, the public/private distinction that has ruled most legal systems has been a major obstacle to women’s rights. In many countries violence against women is exacerbated by legislation, law enforcement and judicial systems that do not recognise domestic violence as a crime. The challenge is to end impunity for the perpetrators as one means of preventing future abuse. Investigations by Human Rights Watch (HRW) have found that in cases of domestic violence, law enforcement officials frequently reinforce the batterers’ attempts to control and demean their victims. Even though several countries now have laws that condemn domestic violence,

When committed against a woman in an intimate relationship, these attacks are more often tolerated as the norm than prosecuted as laws... in many places, those who commit domestic violence are prosecuted less vigorously and punished more leniently those perpetrators of similarly violent crimes against strangers (Human Rights Watch, 1995).

2.4 Effects of Violence against Women

2.4.1 The Physical Effects

The physical effects of violence against women include:

· Bodily wounds which leave them with permanent and unwanted marks scars, and physical disabilities. For example, women may have their hands, legs, teeth, lip, or ever heads broken when violence is committed against them.

· Sicknesses like hypertension, ulcer, or permanent burns, and internal bleeding could result from physical attacks on women.

· Diseases like gonorrhea, syphilis, VVF (Vesico-Vaginal Festula), and HIV/AIDS can result from sexual violence on women.

· Forced miscarriage of pregnancies or even destruction of the womb can result from physical attacks on women.

2.4.2 The Psychological Effects

The psychological effects of violence against women include:

· Confused state of the mind which makes women unable to live a normal life with their families.

· Constant state of anger which makes women who are victims of violence to want to revenge against other people they come across in life.

· Women victims of violence may have problems of bad dreams which can lead to strange forms of behaviour.

· Psychological diseases like depression (or constant bad mood), and mental illness also result from violence against women.

2.4.3 The Social Effects

The social effects of violence against women include:

· Forced isolation or independence. For example, women in communities or homes where they are not protected from violence can choose against their will to begin to live on their own. In the process, they easily become victims of other kinds of violence and crimes in the society.

· Prostitution can result from acts of violence committed against women and girls in the family and the community.

· Use of dangerous and harmful drugs by women can occur when they become victims of violence.

· Destitution of women and their children can equally result from violence against them. When women and children are forced, for example, to leave their homes or communities because they are not protected from violence they could become homeless and would have to live in the streets or uncompleted buildings as beggars. Again, they also become open to crime and violence.

2.5 The Influence of Domestic Violence against Women on parental responsibility

Generally, the family is regarded as a major social institution and a locus of much of a person’s social activity. It is a social unit created by blood, marriage, or adoption, and can be described as nuclear (parents and children) or extended (encompassing other relatives) (Nam, 2004). At present, the modern family is undergoing some significant transformations in its structure. This is because of the societal changes which have caused a sharp reduction in the percentage of classical “typical” families, especially “nuclear families. Thus there is the manifestation of such families as childless families, one-parent families, other family configurations, and quasi-family units based on non-marital cohabitation. This argument of the decline has been advanced for a number of decades, but little research has been conducted to test the premise. Bane (1976) disagreed with that conclusion and pointed out that family sizes were getting smaller and mobility was splitting up some families, but the family remained as a functional social institution. (Fields and Casper 2001)

Moreover, the questions needed to identify non-residential family members would be burdensome and the information costly to obtain. Parental role involves all that a parent needs to do n order to ensure the children are brought up accordingly so as to promote love, harmony and unity within the family. Hence, domestic violence against women is one of such negative behaviour that affects the parental responsibility in recent years.

The Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action (1995: 27), observed the significance role of f women in the family. According to the report,

Women play a critical role in the family. The family is the basic unit of society and as such should be strengthened. It is entitled to receive comprehensive protection and support. In different cultural, political and social system, various forms of the family exist. The rights, capabilities and responsibilities of family members must be respected. Women make great contribution to the welfare of the family and to the development of society, which is still not recognized or considered in its full importance. The social significance of maternity, motherhood and the role of parents in the family and in the upbringing of children require shared responsibility of parents, women and men and society as a whole. Maternity, motherhood, parenting and the role of women in procreation must not be a basis for discrimination nor restrict the full participation of women in society. Recognition should also be given to the important role often played by women in many countries in caring for other members of their family.

In Warri, women contribute immensely toward family upbringing. This is even common now when the income of the husband hardly provide for most expenses in the family such as the payment of children’s school fees, feeding allowances as well as other economic and social cost. Thus, women in Warri not only work in offices; but also carry out other responsibilities in order to assist their husbands. They engage into petty trading and other business activities to support their families.

Morrison, Ellsberg, and Bott (2007) argue that women’s access to and control over economic resources plays significant role in protecting women from violence Studies suggest that it is an ambiguous factor. In some countries, including Nigeria, poor women are more likely to experience violence against ‘women. However, in many countries of the world, there is no significant difference in the levels of violence experienced by women in poorer households and those in wealthier households (Morrison, Ellsberg, and Bott, 2007:29-30). However, the options for escaping violence are greater for women with more economic resources even in Warri metropolis.

2.6 Dimensions of violence against women

Data constraints make it difficult to quantify the problem of violence against women in most societies. There is the general consensus that there is lack of up-to-date quantitative research, the exact dimensions of the problem are not known. This is not surprising; the prevalence of against women is difficult to measure. For example, the stigma and fear surrounding’ violence (by intimate partners and non-partners, including strangers) prevent many from reporting sexual violence and rape, resulting in a significant underreporting of these crimes.

In Warri metropolis, domestic violence against women in the family is the most prevalent form gender-based violence. Some scholars have also noted that between 25 to 50 % of women in many countries have experienced physical abuse by a close relation (Gupta, Heise, veiss and Whelan, 1996). According to Duarte (1994), violence against women is a reflection of societal view of violence as a natural phenomenon based on cultural and other factors which undermine the role of women in the society. It arises from complex cultural, economic and, social system that subordinates women in Warri metropolis. It is often exacerbated when the male indulged in excessive alcohol use, was physically or sexually abuse himself as a child, witnessed parental violence as a child or was unemployed. Again, sexual abuse as a child can lead to self abusive behaviour as an adult, including smoking, alcohol/drug abuse, unprotected sex and prostitution (Heise, 1994).

It is also noteworthy to point out that customary marriage laws consider a wife as a property owned by the husband and that traditionally, divorce carries a considerable social stigma (especially on the women) are indications of societal discrimination against women and power play between the man and the woman. In the Yoruba culture, there is the phenomenon of “da le m’ osu “- this is stigmatization of a female member of the household who either should have been married, or has once been married but now lives in her father’s house/compound (Ajala, 2007:20). From this perspective, a woman who is a victim of domestic violence ‘may continue to stay in ‘such relationship, for the fear of the societal stigma. In Nigeria, Odunjinrin (1993) pointed ‘out ‘that women are often encouraged to stay in abusive relationships because of the cultural be1iefs that a woman’s place is with her husband and because divorced and separated women are not held in high social regard compared to women who remain in marriage.

Furthermore, traditional and cultural practices affecting the health and lives of most, women. Around the world, these women and girls continue to suffer the harmful and life-threatening effects of traditional and cultural practices that continue under the guise of cultural and social [conformism and religious beliefs. Examples include: early or forceful marriage, marital rape, female genital mutilation, beating, gender discrimination, etc.

(i) Female Genital Mutilation (FGM): It has been estimated that nearly 130 million women worldwide have undergone FGM and that approximately two million undergo the procedure every year (World Bank, 2007).

(ii) Early marriages: Early marriage, with or without the consent of the girl, constitutes a form of violence as it undermines the health and autonomy of millions of young girls. The legal minimum age of marriage is usually lower for females than for males. In many countries, the minimum legal age for marriage, with parental consent is considerably lower than without it; more than 50 countries allow marriage at l 6 or below with parental consent ((Hynes, Ward, Robertson, Balaban, Koss, Crouse, and Larson, 2003: 58). Early marriage leads to childhood/ teenage pregnancy, and can expose the girl to HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. It is also associated with adverse health effects for her children, such as low birth weight. ‘Furthermore, it has an adverse effect on the education and employment opportunities of girls.

2.7 Theoretical Perspectives

There are many theories of family violence as well as domestic violence against women in literature. However, in this study, we shall explore on the following two theories..

2.7.1 Social Learning Model of Domestic Violence

The social learning theory provides a broad analysis to examine the individual within the larger social context in which he/she is situated. ((Barnett,Perrin & Perrin,2005) the social learning school of thought is of the view that experiencing violence in the family of origin contributes to one’s risk of committing wife abuse during adulthood. (Cunningham et el 1998). Thus, that people model behavior that they were exposed to as children. By the same token, they state that violence is learned through role models provided by the family eighter directly or indirectly and reinforced in childhood and continued in adulthood as a coping response to stress or a method of conflict resolution. Barnet, Perrin & Perrin (2005) state that:

“Abusive parents provide children with a classroom for learning specific forms of abusive behaviors, particularly attitudes and distinct cognitions that justify violence”.

A critical analysis of this information shows that the social learning school of thought holds that, male violence is as a result of men’s socilalization. Nance The socialization process of men takes place from birth and perpetuated through childhood stages and practiced throughout life. For example, men’s aggressiveness towards women to prove their strength is something that young boys learn from childhood. (Tshesane 2001) moreover, notions of male dominance are thought within institutions of masculinity. Be that as it may, the connection between these two variables is over-elaborated as the major cause for violent action. Witnessing spouse of batters (Loseke at al1999). Argument forwarded in support of this postulation perceives that, the interaction of these two variables only happens to few men (Blacklock, 2001). Not all men who had abusive experience in childhood will go on to be batters and conversely, not all batters have had abusive childhoods (Barnett et al 2005)

2.7.2 Feminist Approaches

Feminism incorporates diversity in terms of its approaches to domestic violence. Feminist theory is not homogeneous. It represents a broad range of often contradictory viewpoints and political affiliations and, as such, is dynamic and pragmatic (Featherstone, 1997). Despite diversity and debate, however, feminism holds some central convictions about the position of men and women in society (Renzetti, 1994). All who espouse a feminist understanding would accept a fundamental tenet of the feminist movement: that society is structured in patriarchy. Within a patriarchal social order, men maintain a privileged position through their domination of women, and their monopoly of social institutions.

Women are relatively disadvantaged in a social system that ensures and perpetuates their subordination by men and predominately male institutions. Feminists look to the historical roots of these inequities to explain the deeply gendered division of power in contemporary society (Holly Johnson,1993). Laws relating to property and inheritance, divorce and child custody, and the franchise, traditionally reinforced male privilege. Historically, laws relating to interpersonal violence did not directly address the issue of domestic violence and gave tacit support to husbands who “chastised” their wives through the use of physical force, within the privacy of their own homes.

Patriarchy is seen as a pervasive influence in the formation and maintenance of all our primary institutions in contemporary society (Holly Johnson, 1996) from the legal system, through health and education, to the nuclear family, on the micro level. Feminists contend that our language, our knowledge base, and our definition of social problems are all constructed within a patriarchal paradigm. Thus, what is given importance and what is not, what is heard and what is not, and what is silenced and what is not is filtered through the lens of male privilege (Olson, 1997).

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, feminist activists and advocates started to speak out on behalf of the many silenced and fearful battered women with whom they were working. Their efforts served to challenge prevailing beliefs t1at woman abuse was rare, and that, when it did occur, within the context of marriage or cohabitation, it was attributable to the psychopathology of the participants. Even in the face of women’s reports of horrendous violence, conventional wisdom held that; the problem lay in the couple dynamic. Within these dyadic-individual explanations, there were no victims and perpetrators, only sadists and masochists. Even those who had an Uneasy feeling that women were not enjoying the victimization they reported were silenced by the weight of orthodoxy. The courage of a vanguard of feminist activists and advocates served to break this societal “conspiracy of silence” and to raise the issue, as a social problem, to public consciousness. Their revelations were met with fear, derision, condemnation, hostility, and, for some, a measure of recognition as they received public validation for their own previously held private beliefs.

From a feminist perspective, the need to continue to affirm the centrality of patriarchy to the issue of domestic violence, both in terms of victim/perpetrator “dynamics” and societal and systemic inequities. Theoretical and explanatory models of domestic violence that ignore the patriarchal context in which domestic violence occurs are flawed, and meaningless. Two explanatory models of domestic violence have emerged from the advocacy and counseling work undertaken with abused women: the Cycle Theory of Violence, and the Power and Control Wheel. The cycle of violence identifies three phases that characterize many incidents of domestic violence: the tension building period, the acute battering incident, and the loving contrition or absence of tension period Walker, 1993). Some feminist counselors/advocates have raised concerns about the use of “the cycle” claiming that it could be construed to implicate women in their victimization and as suggesting that women have some degree of control over the abusive behaviour of their partners. Perhaps the most problematic aspect of the cycle for many is the concept of “learned helplessness,” which is said to grow out of the woman’s inability to predict outcomes in their partners’ behaviour, based on their own actions and reactions (Walker, 1993). This process should not, Walker cautions, be construed as inherent helplessness or weakness in the battered woman. Psychotherapists who work with abused women advocate that these developmentally determined feelings of helplessness be addressed with the goal of therapy being empowerment (Hattendorf and Tollerud, 1997). However, the second explanatory model, the power and control wheel, has emerged as the most commonly used model for the treatment of both men and women.

Empirical Support

Studies of the causes, dynamics and responses in relationships characterized by violence are problematic from a feminist perspective. When couples participate in research that focuses on this violence, there are fears that the intervention could lead to an escalation of violence. Some feminists argue that couple counselling and research should, not be undertaken under these circumstances. There are other reasons that feminist arguments do not easily lend themselves to empirical study using the traditional scientific method. Lack of consensus on the operational definitions of key concepts is one.

Some feminists would claim that conventional methods of analysis are patriarchally constructed and, as such, are antithetical to a feminist approach. Feminist models for explaining and addressing domestic violence have evolved primarily from counseling and advocacy work with female victims and survivors. The main body of literature and even recent study (Canadian Panel on Violence Against Women, 1993) is based on the narrative and anecdotal accounts of women. Theories and interventions have developed inductively from “clinical” or “case” studies. These methods have contributed to a body of knowledge that, while receiving extensive face validity on qualitative and descriptive level, does not lend itself to the scrutiny of traditional scientific study (Poulin and Ross, 1997).

Some studies seek to uncover the power and control dynamics by looking at the instrumental nature of male aggression. Men may use violence, because of their size and strength, to compensate for their perceived inadequacies. For example, women may be at risk of partner violence when. They are better educated or better paid than their mates. McCloskey (1996) examined the effect of socioeconomic factors on the use of coercive control within the family. Although occupational disparity was unrelated to domestic violence, when women’s economic resources approached or exceeded their partner’s they were more likely to be abused. Anderson (1997), studying data from the National Survey of Families and Households, came to a similar conclusion. In examining the effects of development and modernization in Mexico, Oropesa (1997) found that expanding educational opportunities for women correlates with a lower risk for domestic violence. Education differences and reward power were found to contribute to severe violence by Claes and Rosenthal (1990). They found that educational disparities are a more powerful predictor of Violence than power, and that men who have a higher level of education perpetrated more severe violence on their partners. They also found a correlation between a batterer’s perceptions of his partner’s high ability. To provide rewards and the severity of violent acts, the authors suggest that their study indicates the need to understand more about power in relationships. Power may interact with other variables (educational disparity and reward ability of partners to explain acts of severe violence.

In a meta-analytic review of 29 studies of domestic violence (Sugarman and Frankel, 1996), the authors concluded that their findings offered “limited support for the ideological component of the patriarchal theory of wife assault” (Sugarman and Frankel, 1996: 1). In examining attitudes towards violence, gender roles and gender schema only two of the five predicted effects received support. Assaultive husbands were more likely to perceive use of marital violence more acceptable than were non-assaultive husbands. Assaulted wives were more likely to be classified as having a “traditional” feminine gender schema than were their non-assaulted counterparts. Contrary to the initial predictions, violent husbands were found to have more “undifferentiated” gender schema than non-assaultive husbands; assaulted women were found, unexpectedly, to hold more liberal attitudes to gender roles than their non-assaulted counterparts; and violent husbands held shi1ar attitudes towards women as did non-violent husbands (Sugarman and Frankel, 1996: 33).

Studies of domestic violence within extended family systems in traditionally patriarchal societies tend to Challenge these hypotheses. They also raise important questions and unique issues. Studies conducted in India (Prasad, 1994, Fernandez, 1997), although relatively small scale, demonstrate that domestic violence occurs within traditional extended family systems, and that it occurs within the context of institutionalized patriarchy Abuse can take the forms of violence, economic dependency, and fem1e sterilization. It may be legitimized as dowry inadequacy or, failure to produce male children and female members such as mothers-in-law may be co-opted to inflict abuse as well Solutions, within a specifically Indian context, are seen in providing women with the means to obtain economic autonomy and security and independence from the families into which they marry. These studies show that when an Indian woman is abused, she has almost no alternatives, either structurally or informally, than to remain with her violent husband and his family.

Morley’s extensive study of domestic violence in Papua New Guinea also serves to support a feminist perspective and largely refutes the claim that woman abuse is a product of modernization (Morley, 1994). She found that “men’s right to control their wives through beating them has a long history in most Papua New Guinean social structures, predating contact with Westerners” (Morley, .1994: 47). Morley found that, although wife abuse has about twice the prevalence in the urban Papua New Guinea context as in industrialized countries, it does not appear to be more prevalent in urban than in rural Papua New Guinea. Her survey data suggests, however, that victims may experience more severe and frequent violence in the urban context Morley suggests a variety of reasons for these changes as provided by her urban respondents, the relative isolation of the privatized nuclear family, a breakdown in traditional kinship ties, changing roles and expectations, increased independence of women arid a corresponding increase in sexual jealousy on the part of their husbands, increased access to and. use of alcohol by men, stresses involving money and increased awareness of the issue of domestic violence and a corresponding lack of social structures to address the needs of victims. Morley identifies these changing “explanations” as justifications and asserts that, whether in rural or urban Papua New Guinea, violence against women would compare with other developing and industrialized societies, with men’s motivation to control their wives, and social structures that permit them to do so, as common unifying themes.

A study of wife abuse in urban China examined the impact of political change on the incidence of domestic violence (Xu, 1997) by documenting changes wife assault rates over three historical periods. Xu argued that the “patriarchal family system and gender inequality within the family are largely responsible for the prevalence of wife abuse” when women “occupy powerless and subordinate positions in the family” .The incidence of wife abuse declined significantly following the Chinese socialist revolution (1949), possibly because of laws and policies which improved the socio-economic position of women and addressing legally instituted inequities that discriminated against women. The incidence of wife abuse increased significantly during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), however, a period when state violence was used to “reinforce ideological hegemony and social control” (Rushe 1997). During the post-Mao reform period, “trends m wife abuse tended to decrease or leveled off’ (Rushe, 1997) the author predicts that the Deng reforms (which have seen the rise of the market economy, the weakening of centralist policies and an increase in discrimination against women) may lead to increased wife abuse.

In a study of Chinese immigrant brides to the United States, explanations of domestic violence suggest that pre-existing “patriarchal values and norms” are compounded by “structural constructs (immigration, social isolation)” (Chin, 1994: 64). The author acknowledges the legal and societal injustices to which women have been subjected in traditional Chinese society, in a culture where girls are enjoined to obey their fathers, their husbands, after marriage, and their eldest sons, if they are widowed. Chin urges an integrated model of marital violence is best suited to the experience of Chinese immigrant families. The author suggests that this model incorporate theories relating to power inequality, family disharmony and husband’s suspicion of infidelity. (Social and sexual) as intervening variables with independent variables of differential expectations and value conflict.

Domestic violence affects women in countries throughout the world. In many countries governments do not have the will or resources to provide protections for abused women. Some of these women flee their original countries to seek asylum in the United States, where the immigration and Naturalization Service has established guidelines to assist adjudicators to deal with gender-related. Asylum claims (Seith, 1997). Since these guidelines were established, officers have recognized such claims when they relate to female genital mutilation and rape .The author uses extensive political and legal material to urge that these precedents be extended, in practice, to include victims of domestic violence.

Feminists claim that patriarchy is supported by social and political institutions, study that compares sexual coercion reported by university students in Sweden and the United States provides empirical Support for the feminist perspective (Lottes and Weinberg, 1997). In Sweden, where levels of violence and interpersonal violence are lower than in the U.S., students reported lower rates of both physical and non-physical sexual coercion than did their U.S. counterparts. The lower rates reported by Swedish students were attributed to a weaker double standard of sexuality, and the fact that women in Sweden have more institutional power and social benefits.

In a study of wife abuse amongst Hispanic and Anglo Americans in the U.S. (Kantor, Jasinski and Aldarondo, 1994) the authors noted that, although only a relatively small number of Cuban families was studied, they found that ‘wife assaults among Cuban families are virtually non-existent (Kantor, Jasinski and Aldarondo,1994: 218). They observe that this may be attributed to less male domination and segregated gender roles within these Cuban-American families than in their counterparts in Cuba. In view of their finding, further study of Cuban and Cuban-American families may prove fruitful to our understanding of domestic violence from a cross cultural perspective, particularly in the light of Cuba’s political history. Overall, the authors did not find that a cultural mechanism was responsible for the transmission of domestic violence. Their study suggests that unemployment, alienation and cultural marginality form the “underpinnings of abuse” in the populations studied (Kantor, Jasinski and Aldarondo, 1994:218).

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3. O Introduction

The methodology used in the conduct of this research is the quantitative and qualitative method. Quantitative and qualitative research studies problem by collecting information from several sources including both primary and secondary materials, which constitute the data pertinent to the study. The research gathers the materials and then critically analyses them to discover their relevance to the research questions, how they relate to the subject, and the meaning of the information obtained (Wiersma, 1991:14-15).

This study would adopt the descriptive survey research design because of its economical nature in drawing inferences and collecting data from a large population on the influences of domestic violence against women on family stability in Warri Metropolis. Specifically, the methodology includes the Study location, study population, sampling procedure and how the information required would be elicited from the respondents. The methods, of analysis for the data collected would also be presented.

3.1 The Study Area

The study was conducted in Warri Metropolis, Delta State of Nigeria. Two local government areas within Warri Metropolitan were adopted. They include Udu and Uvwie local government area. These two local government areas are found within Warri Metropolitan areas.

3.2 The Study Population

The population of the study includes ever-married women aged 15 to 60 and men aged 20 to 65 years. The category of men aged 50 to 60 was included in order to obtain information on the experiences they had in their marital relationships over the years. Again, they would understand better the nature, causes and effects of reasons for the incidence of domestic violence against women in the family. Thus, interviewing both men and women provided the opportunity for comprehensive understanding of the nature and implications of family violence on women and girls.

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3.3 Samples and Sampling Techniques

The sample was intended to consist of 250 respondents, with at least each local government area having 50 respondents. However, due to certain constraints, only 240 respondents (180 Urban areas, 40 Rural areas) were reached. Majority of the respondents were from urban areas because of the larger population. The female proportion of women in the sample is higher because they are the group that is more vulnerable to violence. However, men -are included in the study due to the fact that the issue of violence is gender related and as a result, in order to proffer possible solutions, the views of men need be considered. More so, it is important to point out that the men and women in this study are not couples. This is done in order to reduce the chances of under reporting as well as reduce biased responses. The questionnaires were administered to respondents in their homes, churches, offices and other public places.

3.4 Method of Data Collection

The study used both primary and secondary sources of data collection. The primary sources of data were collected through questionnaires and in-depth interview. To elicit information, open-ended questions and follow up questions were asked during the course of interview to facilitate basis for references drawn from the responses. For the secondary sources, data was collected from textbooks, journals, and documentary sources and reports.

Indeed, the researcher administered the questionnaires with the help of Field Research Assistants. Unfamiliar terms were explained to some respondents, to indicate and tick their choices. More so, adequate effort was ensured in the proper administration of the questionnaire.

3. 5 Research Instruments

A structured questionnaire and interviewed schedule was used in obtaining data. Interview -method was employed in collecting information from respondents. The questions relating to the respondent’s socio-economic and demographic characteristics, as well as questions that solicit the nature and prevalence of violence were asked. Also questions about marriage, knowledge and perceptions of respondents on violence, types, causes, consequences of violence among others were included in the questionnaire. Again the interview advances to provide answers to some of the research questions raised early in the study.

I. The Structured Interview - Questionnaire

The respondents were randomly sampled from the four local government areas, while the correspondent results (questionnaires) were electronically analyzed. The questionnaires have two sections. The first section examined the demographic characteristics of the respondents, while the second part elicited information on the objectives which the study intended to achieve.

The data generated from the interviews help to contextualize some of the responses from those who filled the questionnaires.

The choice of the questionnaire in preference to other survey techniques was because of the large population, geographical coverage and the financial implication involved in reaching the people if other methods were used.

ii. In-depth Interviews

An In-depth interview session was conducted with men and women. The interview schedule was based on the premise that it was one of the reliable and sensitive methods of obtaining information pertinent to human activity. In addition, it was a way of having dialogue with respondents on a one on one basis on how they perceived the incidence of domestic violence against women and girls and its implications on the stability of the family. This helped to generate information in a personalized manner and ensured that a higher degree of anonymity was observed. A total of 15 respondents were interviewed, from the four local government areas.

3.6 Method of Data Analysis

Data analysis involved the use of appropriate qualitative and. quantitative techniques to accomplish both descriptive using content analyses. Data collected through Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and in depth interviews were analyzed mainly through content analysis. This process involves the translation and transcription of both in-depth and structured interviews. This was followed by the examination and isolation of the various responses that threw light on the study objectives. By adopting this method, both the discussions and responses from in-depth interviews and structured interview were imported into the analysis on the merit of their analysis.

The data collected through In-depth interviews were applied to the thematic issues under discussion. The responses from quantitative data (questionnaires) were analyzed using the simple percentage, frequency distribution table. It was done by coding, summarizing, and analyzing through the use of Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) through the computer. Hence, frequency, percentages and tables were used.

Qualitative content analysis which is also known as ethnographic content analysis facilitates contextual meaning m text through the development of emergent themes (Bryman, 2001) derived from textual data. Qualitative content analysis may also be derived through manifest content, whereby respondents’ actual words form concepts, or through latent content, whereby concepts are derived from the interpretation and judgment of participants’ responses (Wood, 2001). This is a widely used method of eliciting meaning from text, and is increasingly undertaken through computerized software packages (Woods and Roberts, 2000)

3 7 Validation of Instrument

In order to ascertain the validity of the instrument (questionnaires), copies of the drafts were made available to experts in the Faculty of Social Science, and the researcher’s supervisor for critical appraisal and in determining the extent to which the questionnaire elicited information they were intended to achieve or early praised to proffer appropriate responses to the research questions.

3 8 Field Work Experience

In the course of this research, like other Peace and Conflict Studies, there were problems encountered in collecting data. The, first problem was in trying to explain the essence of the study. It took some time to convince them that the information given by them would not be used against them. Initially they viewed the research with suspicion and so were reluctant to respond to questions put to them, on one occasion seeing the questionnaire and interview guide they had, though it was meant to pass some information to against their personality.

There was the usual difficulty of getting back the administered questionnaires (of the 280 questionnaires administered and distributed 240 were recovered) as well as in getting complete interview from victims of domestic violence, some of them stylishly avoided some questions and most did not give me audience This they say was a mark of disrespect in Africa context

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.0 Introduction

This chapter analyses and discusses the findings obtained. A total of two hundred and fourty (240) copies of the questionnaires were administered. Out of this total, two hundred and fourty (210) were returned, twenty (20) were not returned, while ten (10) were wrongly filled. Therefore, 210 (86%) of the questionnaires were returned. Therefore, this analysis was based on the 86% that formed the confidence level of the study. Such a high percentage of success was recorded because, a lot of women, especially showed great interest in the study.

DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

Table 4.1 Distribution of Respondent based on Local Government Areas and their Headquarters

Local Government Area	Headquarter	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Uvwie		140	59
Udu		100	41
Total		240	100

Source Field Survey 2015

Table 4.1 above shows that majority of the respondents 140 (99%) were from Uvwie Local Government Area. This was followed by Udu which constituted 100 (41%) of those whose opinions were sampled.

SECTION A: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHlC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS

This section discusses the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents in the four Local Government Areas under focus Specific variables examined include sex, age, marital status, religion, education, occupation, resident, duration of marriage and monthly income. It is imperative to have knowledge of these aspects of the respondents’ background since they are likely to inform their level of knowledge on the incidence of domestic violence against them.

Table 4.2 Distribution of Respondents by Sex

Sex	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Male	60	25
Female	180	75
Total	210	100

Source: Field survey 2015

Table 4.2 shows that out of the two hundred and ten (210) returned copies of the questionnaires, forty-five (45) which accounted for 22% of the total respondents were males, while one hundred and sixty-five (165) which was 78% of the total respondents were females. In other words, majority of the respondents were females.

The female proportion is four times that of the male, which is because they form the group that is more vulnerable to domestic violence. Hence, men are included in the study due to the fact that the issue of violence is gender related and as such, in order to proffer possible solutions. It should be mentioned that the men and women in this study are not couples. Couples were not interviewed to reduce the chances of under reporting as well as biased responses. Though couples were not interviewed, information about respective spouses was obtained from the respondents.

Table 4.3: Distribution of Respondents by Age

Age	Frequency	Percentage (%)
18 – 28 years	30	14
29 – 39 years	58	27
40 – 45 years	46	22
46 – 55 years	50	25
56 and above	26	12
Total	210	100

Source: Field Survey 2015

Table above shows that sixty (30) which was 14% of the total respondents were between 18-28 years, (58) which was 27% of the total respondents were 29 — 39 between years, while fourty-six (22%) were 41 — 45 years of age. Fifty (50) which was 25% of the respondents were between 46-55 years of age. Only 56(12%) of the 210 respondents were above 56 years of age.

Therefore, majority of respondents were women that have experienced domestic violence in the family between the age bracket of 29 -39 years.

Table 4.4 Distribution of Respondents by Marital Status

Respondents	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Single	15	7
Married	75	36
Separated	70	34
Divorced	35	16
Widow/widower	15	7
Total	210	100

Source: Field Survey 2015

Table 4.4. indicates that, out of the two hundred and ten (210) respondents, seventy five (75) which was 36% were married, while fifteen (15) which was 7% were single, those who have separated from their spouse were seventy (70) which was 34%. Only thirty-five (35) which was 16% have already divorced in their marriage, but fifteen (15) which was 7% had lost either their wives or husband.

Thus majority of respondents were married couple who had experienced domestic violence in their relationship at one time or the other.

Table 4.5 Distribution of Respondents by religion

Region	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Christian	175	83
Muslim	10	4
Traditionalist	15	9
None	10	4
Total	210	100

Source: Field Survey 2015

Table 4.5 is to show whether the religion of respondents affect their responses on the influence of domestic violence against women on parental responsibilities. From the table, out of the two hundred and ten (210) respondents, one hundred and seventy-five (183) which was 83% of the total population were Christians; ten (10) which was 4% were Muslims, while fifteen (9) which was 9% of respondents were Traditionalists. Ten (10) which was 4% could not indicate their involvement in any religion.

Table 4.6 Distribution of Respondents by Education

Education	Frequency	Percentage (%)
No education	40	19
Primary school	58	27
Secondary school	60	29
Diploma certificate	20	9
University education	32	15
Total	210	100

Source: Field Survey 2015

The above Table shows that respondents without any formal education were 40 (19%), while respondents with primary education were 58 (27%), those respondents that had secondary school education were 60 (29%), respondents with diploma were 20 (9%) while those with university education were 32 (15%) respectively. What this simply implies is that respondents with secondary education, primary education and those without formal education formed the bulk of respondents in the study. One can therefore infer that the respondents were in a good position to proffer and supply functional and reliable answers to the questions in the questionnaire.

Table 4.7 Distribution of Respondents by Occupation

Occupation	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Trading /Business	65	31
Farming	32	15
Civil servant	50	24
Not working	38	18
Others	25	12
Total	210	100

Source: Field Survey 2015

Table 4.7 contains analysis on the occupational characteristics of the respondents. According to the table, majority of the respondents are either engaged in trading or civil service work. These two economic activities account for 31% and 24% of respondents’ occupational activities. Another 38 (18%) of respondents are not working while 32 (15%) respondents have farming as their main source of occupation. The remaining 25(12%) of respondents have other activities which was not specified as their occupation.

Table 4.8 Distribution of Respondents by types of Residence

Types of Residence	Frequency	Percentage (%)
One-Room	41	20
Two-three room	76	37
Flat	68	32
Duplex	25	11
Total	210	100

Source: Field Survey 2015

Table 4.8 revealed the type of residence of respondents. As evidenced from the table, most of the respondents are still living in two-three rooms or flat respectively. As expected too, only few lived in one-room apartment or duplex.

Table 4.9 Distribution Of Respondents by year in marriage

Years in marriage	Frequency	Percentage (%)
1-5 years	48	23
6-10	78	37
11-19 years	64	30
20 years and above	20	10
Total	210	100

Source: Field Survey 2015

Table 4.9, shows that respondents who have been in marriage between the year bracket 1 -5 were 48 (23%), 6 — 10 years age bracket were 78 (34%), while 11 — 19 years were 68 (30%) and 20 and above years were 20 (10%) respectively. From this table, respondents that have married for 11 — 19 years were mostly encountered by the researcher and their views will constitute more in this study.

Table 4. 10 Distributions of Respondents by Monthly Income

Amount	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Below N15,000.00	50	23
N16,000.00-N21,000.00	65	29
N22,000.00-N36,000.00	45	21
N37,000.00-N49,000.00	32	17
N50,000.00 and above	18	10
Total	210	100

Source: Field Survey 2014

Table 4. 10 above indicates that majority of the respondents are middle income earners it is clear that majority of the respondents 65 (29%) earn between N16, 000.00 to N2 1, 000.00 at the end of the month. This was followed by 50 (23%) of respondents that earn below N15, 000.00, while 45 (21%) of the respondents earn between N22, 000.00 to N36, 000.00. Another 32 (17%) of respondents earn between N37, 000.00 to N49, 000.00. The least of the respondents were those whose monthly income are either N50, 000.00 and above.

The prevailing low or middle income is not surprising going by the educational and occupational characteristics of the residents. These three characteristics — income, education and occupation have serious implications on the stability of the family. For instance, due to the poor level of education, most women lack skills that could fetch them good jobs, hence, the prevailing subjugation of women for various forms of physical, economic, and psychological violence in the family by their partners. This aggravates poverty and affects their ability to participate in decision that can better their living conditions.

SECTION B: DATA PRESENTATION

Questionnaire and structured interview were used to elicit information on domestic violence against women and its influence on family stability. The responses from these instruments were analyzed, tabulated and discussed.

Research Question 1: Who are the perpetrators of domestic violence against women and what motivate their actions?

Table 4.11 Do women in Warri suffer violence in the family?

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Yes	190	90
No	12	6
Undicided	8	4
Total	210	100

Source: Field Survey 2015

Table 4.11 above attempts to find out whether women in Warri metropolis suffer violence in their respective families or not.

Findings show that 190 (90%) respondents agreed that women suffer violence in the hands of their partners. While 12 (6%) of the respondents disagreed, but 8 (4%) respondents were not certain on the issue. One of the respondents interviewed noted that:

The incidence of domestic violence against women is not peculiar to any age group or socio-economic class. It cuts across the various strata of the society. However, impatience and lack of trust are the main reasons for most cases of violence against women these days. In Warri, for instance, both young and old indulge in the act of violence which usually leads to divorce and separation. When one listens to radio daily, there is no doubt hearing the incidence of divorce as a result of violence.

This corroborates with the findings of Heise (1994) that the incidence of violence against women is largely universal. The implication is that the chances that a woman will not in her lifetime escape being a victim of family violence are slim.

Table 4.12 Have you or any of your female friends experienced sexual harassment in the family?

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Yes	120	57
No	50	24
Don’t know	40	19
	210	100

Source: Field Survey 2015

Table 4.12 above reveals that majority of women both young and adult have experienced sexual harassment perpetuated by male members of the family one time or the other. This revelation is based on the responses above, as over half of the total respondents 120 (57%) agreed that themselves or their friends have experienced sexual harassment in the family in the form of rape or smooching.

That majority of women who suffer sexual harassment in the hands of their partners have been supported by other studies. For instance, Omonubi-McDonnell (2003:156) in her study of Gender Inequality in Nigeria observes that “sexual harassment is a manifestation of the powerlessness wrought by women’s economic situation and reinforced by their psychological training”

Research Question 2: What are the nature and causes of violence against women in the family?

Table 4 13 Men learned abuse of their spouse through their and family friends

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Yes	160	76
No	30	14
Undecided	20	10
Total	210	100

Source: Field Survey 2015

From the above findings, it shows that majority of respondents 160 (76%) especially women, agreed that men learn abuse of spouse through their various relationship with family and friends. However, 30 (14%) of the respondents did not agree, while 20 (10%) of the respondents were undecided.

A related analysis of social learning model as stated by Barnet, Perrin & Perrin (2005) Thus:

“Abusive parents provide children with a classroom

for learning specific forms of abusive behaviors,

particularly attitudes and distinct cognitions

that justify violence”

One of the respondents at the course of interview lamented

“When we first got married, my husband wasn’t like this. He started beating that was when I noticed most of his friends were divorced with their “wives.

Table 4.14 .Domestic violence against women undermine their parental role at home.

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Yes	135	64
No	30	14
Don’t know	45	22
Total	210	100

Source: Field Survey 2015

The researcher further attempts to know the Domestic violence against women undermine their parental role at home. Findings indicates that majority of the respondents 135 (64%) are of the opinion that Domestic violence against women undermine their parental role at home, while. 30 (14%) disagreed. Out of the total respondents, only 45 (22%) of the respondents were uncertain.

Table 4.15 The Customary Practices and Legislative process is responsible for domestic violence against women.

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Yes	138	58
No	44	18
Don’t know	58	24
Total	240	100

Source: Field Survey 2014.

Findings from table 4.15 above shows that majority of the respondents 138 (5 8%) agreed that some customary practices and legislative proeesses in the country contribute rather than reduce the incidence of domestic violence in the family which could influence the stability of the family negatively. Contrarily, 44 (18%) of the respondents disagreed while 58 (24%) said “don’t know.” In view of the above findings, a respondent stated that:

Laws focused on violence against women are not enough. Broader legal reforms are required, particularly in the areas of family and property law. Complementary social and welfare policies strengthen the effectiveness of legal reforms. Enacting new laws is meaningful only if resources are provided to facilitate implementation. This often requires training for justice system personnel, education for the general public, and social transformation. Indeed, social change and transformation often pave the way for legal changes.

Table 4.16: The prevailing economic condition in the country as responsible for the high incidence of violence against women in the family.

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Yes	160	67
No	62	26
Don’t know	18	7
Total	240	100

Source: Field Survey 2014

The researcher intend to find out the extent to which the economic condition in the country which is predominantly characterized by poverty, unemployment and poor standard of living could be responsible for the incidence of violence against women in the family, particularly in Asaba metropolis. From the survey, it shows that the present economic situation has escalated the incidence of violence against women among families in Asaba. This evidence is revealed from the fact that majority of the respondents 160 (67%) said “yes”, while the other respondents constituting 62(26%) had a contrary view. But 18 (7%) were indifferent on their opinion that the prevailing economic condition is responsible for most incidence of

Table 4.17 Lack o respect by spouse is the major cause of domestic violence against women

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Yes	148	62
No	58	24
Don’t know	34	14
Total	240	100

Source: field survey 2014

Table 4.17 above indicates that majority of the respondents 148 (62%) responded in the affirmative stating that lack of respect by one’s spouse causes domestic violence against women in the family, while 58 (24%) of the respondents disagreed. But 34 (14%) of the respondents were unsure whether lack of respect is actually responsible for some of problems between husbands and wives or other people in intimate relationship.

The researcher is of the view that most incidence of violence against women or intimate partner violence are as a result of lack of respect. In order to reduce the violence against women, couples should learn to respect each other.

Table 4.18: Lack of male child lead to incidence of violence in marital relationship.

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Agree	168	70
Disagree	47	20
No comment	25	10
Total	240	100

Source: Field Survey 2014

Th6 above table shows that domestic violence against women in the family is more prevalent when there is no male child in the relationship. This evidence is attested to from the respondents’ view that majority of those interviewed 168 (70%) agreed that lack of male child is sometimes responsible for marital disharmony. On the other hand, 47 (20%) of the respondents had contrary view; however 25 (10%) were indifferent on the matter.

Table 4.19: Mass Media as a source of Domestic violence against women in the family.

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Yes	42	18
No	84	35
Don’t know	114	47
Total	240	100

Source: Field Survey 2014

As indicated, in table 4.19 above, majority of the respondents, precisely 114 respondents, representing 47% of the sample population claimed that they were uncertain whether mass media such as radio, television, and internet contribute .to the escalation of domestic violence against women in the family. This is followed by 84 respondents representing 35% who disagreed, while 42 respondents representing 18% agreed.

Indeed, mass media is a powerful agent of change and socialization in any society. In Asaba, the influence of mass media such as radio, newspaper, television, films, video and internets contribute to violence culture, including violence on women because most of the negative violent behaviours are learn through them.

Table 4.20: Is Poverty responsible for incidence of domestic violence against women.

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Yes	190	79
No	40	17
Don’t know	10	4
Total	240	100

Source: Field Survey 2014

In response to Table 4.20 on whether the high level of poverty in the country is responsible for frequent incidence of domestic violence in recent times, majority of the’ respondents 190 (79%) agreed, while 40 (17%) were of contrary view. The remaining respondents that consisted 10 (4%) were not certain

One of the teachers interviewed in a secondary school stated that the high incidence of poverty these days is the major cause of different types of violence including domestic violence against women. When the family is poor, it is the wife that suffers most. And some husbands abandon their wives and children.

Table 4.21: Is Domestic Violence against women most prevalent in polygamous families?

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Yes	158	66
No	34	14
Don’t know	48	20
Total	240	100

Source: Field Survey 2014

Table 4.21 reveals that, of two hundred and fourty (240) respondents whose opinions were sampled, majority. 158 (66%) believed that domestic violence against women is most prevalent in polygamous families, while an overall total of 34 (14%) of the respondents disagreed, and 48 (20%) of the respondents were not certain whether incidence of domestic violence against women is common in polygamous families or not Polygamous family refers to the family where a man marries more than one woman.

Research Question 3: What are the effects of domestic violence against women on family stability?

Table 4.22: Are Children in violence homes victim of child abuse?

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Yes	158	66
No	34	14
Don’t know	48	20
Total	240	100

Source: Field Survey 2014

Table 4.22 shows that majority of the respondents are of the view that children in violence home are most likely to be victim of child abuse. Fifty-five which represent 23% of the respondents agreed that children in violence homes experience child abuse, while one hundred and twenty- eight (128) which accounted for 53% strongly agreed. Thirty-three (33) which made up 14% of the total population disagreed. Only twenty-four (24) which was 10% of the total population strongly disagreed that children in violence homes are most likely to be victims of child abuse. It appears from the above discussion that majority of respondents are of the view that children whose parents always engage in violence are likely to be victim of abuse either in the home or elsewhere.

A male respondent who is a clergy says:

Violence against one member of the family profoundly affects everybody in the home, and children are traumatized by the abuse of their mother.

Another respondent (a pastor) captured this in the following statement:

…..I will say that most girls that had premature pregnancy or who turn to prostitution are from families whose parents build their homes without the ideal foundation of God. What do you expect, for instance, when the father or mother engages in extramarital affairs? What do you expect when the parents are irresponsible to themselves? The children will likely do anything they like because the. Parents, either mother or father is not living to their expectations. They quarrel like cat and dogs. In most cases, the children would be neglected and allow to fend for themselves.

The researcher is of the view that incidence of domestic violence in Asaba affect children because of improper training by parents. So, it is important that parents live an exemplary life capable of emulation by their children.

Table 4.23: Do children who witness incidence of domestic violence in the family easily turn delinquent?

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree	98	41
Agree	60	25
Strongly Disagree	30	12
Total	240	100

Source: Field Survey 2014

From table 4.23, it is clear, that majority of respondents are of the view that children that witness violence in the family easily turn deliquent in the community. The table shows that out of the total number of respondents 98 (41%) strongly agreed that violence in the family can contribute to violent and delinquent behaviours among children, while 60 (25%) of the respondents agreed. Fifty-two (52) which was 22% strongly disagreed to this statement while thirty (30) which accounted for 12% of the total respondents disagreed that domestic violence against women in the family leads children to display delinquent behaviours. This is to say, that majority of the respondents agreed to the statement that domestic violence in the family affects their children behaviour negatively.

A secondary school teacher explains in her narration saying that:

Most of the delinquent and criminals we have in the country now is as a result of broken homes. How can a family bring out a better and responsible child when the husband and wife is not in harmonious relationship or build their marriage on the foundation of Christian virtue. When there is quarrel or dispute between husband and wife the children in most cases, are affected economically, socially and psychologically to the extent that some may be withdrawn from schools, abuse, fostered by irresponsible people. In essence, it generates cycle of violence for such children. Moreso, the children may not have a good role model to copy. In short, all these have implication not only for the wellbeing of the child but also the entire family members. To the society, it increases social ills and criminals acts.

Hence, parents should devote adequate attention toward proper upbringing of their children, as this will go a long way to reduce incidence of violence not only families but also m the society at large.

A related research conducted by Peled, Jaffe and Edleson (1995) also observed that children who witness violence at home display emotional and behavioural disturbances as diverse as withdrawal, low self-esteem, nightmares, and aggression against peers, family members and property. It was also shown that in 60% to 75% of families in which a woman is battered, children are also battered (Osofsky, 1999:33-49). In addition, children living in households where domestic violence usually occurs are at a higher risk for sexual abuse.

Based on the data collected through questionnaire and in-depth interview, we can infer that most women in Asaba metropolis do suffer domestic violence which leads to health related problems as a result of violence inflicted on them by their intimate partners.

Table 4.24: Domestic violence against women affects economic stability and welfare of family members.

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree	116	48
Agree	86	36
Strongly Disagree	28	12
Disagree	10	4
Total	240	100

Source: Field Survey 2014

The distribution shows that majority of the respondents 116 (48%) strongly agreed that domestic violence against women could affect economic stability and welfare of family members, while 86 (3 6%) of the respondents agreed. The remaining 28 (12%) vehemently disagreed to the claim, while 10 (4%) disagreed.

One of the female educated traders submits that:

Witnessing violence can also have a brutalizing effect leading to a cycle of violence perpetuated down the generation the long-term effects are often depression, other mental health disorder and suicide. It is really a public health issue.

Indeed, it is important that domestic violence in families is reduced in all ramifications, so that there will be harmony and stability in our respective families in Asaba

Another respondent, a female Barrister, opined that:

Violence against women and the broader problem of gender inequality is a significant constraint on development. It negates every area of development activity, and is an abuse of human rights. The vicious cycle of poverty and violence against women is multidimensional. It takes an accumulating toll on human and financial resources, economic production, food security, education, health and welfare, across the public and private sectors, and at each level of civil society.

There is no doubt that violence against women retards development, and works contrary towards the achievement of the gender equality as outlined by the United Nations in the Millennium Development Goals Project. Therefore, we should endeavour to eliminate all forms of violence against women in our families, considering the important roles women play in families.

Table 4.25: Domestic violence against women in the family affects the reproductive health of women

Response	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree	92	39
Agree	86	36
Strongly disagree	40	16
Disagree	22	09
Total	240	100

Source: Field Survey 2014

Table 4.25 shows that ninety-two (92) respondents which were 39% strongly agreed that domestic violence against women in the family affect the reproductive health of women. While eighty-six (86) which accounted for 36% of the total respondents agreed to this claim, forty (40) which was 16% of the respondents strongly disagreed with the view that domestic violence in the family affects the reproductive health of women. Another twenty-two (22) which accounted for 9% also disagreed with the claim.

This implies that majority of respondents were of the view that reproductive health affects women that experienced domestic violence with their partners. Indeed, in Asaba most delinquent children are from broken homes or single handedly brought up by single parents. Some of these problems are as a result domestic violence against women especially the mother. This .has also resulted to frequent separation and divorce in Asaba metropolis, and consequently improper training of children when “the mother is not here” and sexual abuse of some children especially the female child. Indeed, this usually has negative effect on the stability of the family and the nation at large.

A study in U.S. also found that women who experienced intimate partner abuse were three times more likely to have a gynecological problem than was non-abused women (Campbell, et al., 2002)

As observed from the study, the researcher is of the view that beating, rape, and other forms of attacks also have health implications for women and children as well as the education and social wellbeing of other family members. Thus, efforts should be made to carry out legislation in Oyo State and Nigeria to punish perpetrators of domestic violence against women as has been done in developed countries.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENMDATIONS

This chapter presents a summary of the study, the findings and draws conclusions and makes certain recommendations.

5.1 Summary

The first chapter deals with the introduction to the study. In it, focus was on the general background information on the issue of domestic violence against women and its influence on family stability. Attention was also given on the problem statement, the question which the study tends to proffer answers to and the objectives which it tend to achieve, the rationale for the study as well as the justification for it was considered. Moreso, definition of some important concepts was examined in order to make for a better understanding. The scope and-framework of the study was also examined.

Chapter two of the study gave an insight into the relevant literature. In order to help readers have a better understanding of the drift of this study, related literature to the subject matter were discussed These were domestic violence against women, forms of violence against women, nature and causes of domestic violence and the effects or consequences of domestic violence against women. Focus was also on the influence of domestic violence against women on family stability. The study also identified some theoretical basis that justified violence against women.

Chapter three focused on the research methodology. The instrument used to carry out the study — - questionnaires and in-depth interview techniques were employed. The method of data collection and anaIysis were all highlighted. Purposive and random sampling techniques were adopted in selecting .a total of 240 respondents. Respondents were selected from 4 Local Government Areas out of the 6 Local Government Areas that comprised the Metropolitan Asaba. Copies of questionnaires were given to the respondents personally with the help a research assistant in the homes and public places such as markets, offices, churches, mosques and recreation centres. All the useful questionnaires were carefully examined. The study adopted the simple percentage to analyse data gathered from respondents.

Finally, chapter four presented the analysis of the data collected and the discussion of the findings.

The study showed that the female proportion is more than that of male, which is because they form the group that is more vulnerable to domestic violence. Indeed, men are included in the study due to the fact that the issue of violence is gender related and as such, in order to proffer possible solutions, the views of men need be considered. It should be mentioned that those interviewed in this study are within the age bracket of 29—39 years.

The results also indicate that about 75% of the respondents are females. The results show that most of the respondents attained secondary school. It also revealed that they are most traders who lived in two — three room apartments and had spent 11 to 19 years in their marriage. Indeed, their monthly income ranges between N16, 000.00 to N21, 000.00. The implication is that there is need to take affirmative action to encourage and ensure that women attain higher level of education than they do at present in Asaba.

The findings of the study revealed that most women in Asaba were victims of domestic violence especially by their intimate partners. From the study, it was shown that about 67% of women in Asaba have been sexually harassed.

The results show that the prevalence of power disparity, customary practices, legislative processes, economic condition are responsible for incidence of domestic violence in Asaba. Other factors identified by the study include lack of respect by spouse, lack of male child in marriage, influence of mass media (radio, television, internet, magazines, etc), poverty as well as the polygamous nature of most families in Asaba.

The study showed that domestic violence against women affects the family stability in different ways. Results revealed that children in violence homes are more likely to be abuse and delinquent. In addition, the findings indicated that domestic violence against women affects the economic, social and physical well beings of family members.

The study finally revealed that most women who were victims of violence in the family suffer from reproductive health problems such as: chronic pelvic pain, vaginal bleeding or discharge, vaginal infections, painful menstruation, sexual dysfunction, fibroids, pelvic inflammatory diseases, painful intercourse, urinary tract infection, infertility among others

5.2 Conclusion

The study carried out an investigation on the influence of domestic violence against women on family stability. It examined the nature, causes and effect of domestic violence against women in Asaba Delta State. Therefore, four Local Government Areas were purposely selected as samples for the study. The selection of the Local Government Areas cut across all the Metropolitan Asaba both urban and the rural areas. The Local Government Areas are:

(i) Oshimili South L.G.A.

(ii) Oshimili North L.G.A

(iii) Anocha South L.G.A

(iv) Anocha North L.G.A

(From the findings of this study, it an be deduced that the incidence of domestic violence against women is prevalent in all societies and cuts across all socio-economic strata irrespective of ages, educational background, religion, income, residence of respondents.

Women constituted the bulk of the study, because they form the group that is most vulnerable to domestic violence in the family. Respondents were asked about the incidence of domestic violence and their experience about it in their respective families.

Thus, the study revealed that women of all ages are victims of domestic violence in the family. Findings show that majority of women suffer violence in the hands of their partners. This is indicated by 208 respondents that asserted to this claim. The distribution shows that majority of the respondents 116 (4 8%) strongly agreed that domestic violence against women affect economic stability and welfare of family members.

The result has shown that traditional and cultural practices still play a significance role in the incidence of domestic violence against women. It is the general belief, especially among women that men exercise much control on their lives.

The study also revealed that majority of women both young and adult have experienced sexual harassment, one time or the other, in the family and this was usually perpetuated by male members of the family This revelation is based on the responses, as over half of the total respondents 160 (67%) agreed that they have experienced sexual harassment in the family in the form of rape or smooching

The research unveiled that reproductive health of women are drastically at risk following violence perpetuated by men in some families Indeed, most health related diseases and sickness suffered by women are as a result of beating, torturing and rape by their intimate partners.

Furthermore, the study also revealed that domestic violence against women in the family is more prevalent in Asaba metropolis especially when there is no male child m the relationship this evidence is attested from the respondents’ view, that majority of those interviewed. 168 (70%) agreed that lack of male child is usually responsible for marital disharmony However, parents should understand that there is no child that cannot bring pride to the family Hence, that a male child is not born should not be enough reason to perpetuate violence against such women in the family.

In Asaba metropolis, this study confirmed that domestic violence against women can easily result to child abuse. This revelation became obvious as majority of respondents 128 (53%) attested to the claim that domestic violence against women have seriously affected the stability of most relationships as well as families leading to separation and divorce in most cases.

The study further indicated that in Asaba metropolis, mass media may not be responsible for the incidence of domestic violence. This indication came as majority of the respondents, 1.14 (47%) claimed that they were uncertain whether mass media such as radio, television, dailies and internet contribute to escalate domestic violence against women in the family. From this indication, it shows that mass media as one of the agents of socialization propagates both negative and positive ideals in the society. Hence, some violent men learn their acts through the media, especially films.

Finally, the study has shown that women who are not gainfully employed in Asaba are more likely to experience domestic violence than those who work, especially in the formal sector. Also, women in polygamous families are more likely to experience domestic violence. Indeed, the researcher observed that domestic violence against women influenced stability of their families, including the well-being of children and family members in various ways in Asaba.

5.3 Recommendations

From the findings and conclusions of this research work, it may be pertinent to make some recommendations that would guide in reducing the incidence of domestic, violence against women and its influence on the stability of families not only in Asaba but also in Nigeria generally. Thus, the following recommendations are hereby suggested.

I.There is need to empower women through education, employment opportunities, legal literacy, and rights to inheritance. Thus, human rights education and information regarding domestic violence should be provided to women because this is a matter of their absolute rights. Again, integrated supportive services, legal intervention and redress should be made available in situations of domestic violence against women. Hence, there is need to assist women to rebuild and recover their living conditions’ after violence; and this should be part of the intervention strategy.

ii. Community groups and government institutions should be trained to identify women at risk of domestic violence so that their problems are addressed adequately. In view of this, there is need to’ mobilize local communities to address all forms of domestic violence against women such as cultural forms of behavior that uphold male aggression, beating, punishment and abuse of women as acceptable. Traditional cultural practices, such as Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), that violates women’s integrity need to be re-examined and challenged. Culture is not static and newer forms of cultural norms that respect women and promote their dignity ‘and safety needs to be put in place.

iii. Furthermore, community elders and religious leaders should be able to demonstrate leadership in this aspect. For example, religious leaders such as pastors, priests, Imams, among others, should be advised to re-examine doctrines and cultural practices that lead to the subordination of women and violation of their rights and correct the anomaly.

IV Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) should play the fundamental role in bringing pressure on government to ratify, or withdraw their reservations to, the international human rights instruments such as the Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). This is important so as to create awareness on matters concerning women and the violation of their rights. In addition, civil society groups and the international community need to initiate and support reforms of policy law and practice in Nigeria that can protect women and girls from violence in the home and community.

v. There is need to ensure adequate funding for medical practices and hospitals for treatment of women who are victims of violence in the family. Government should ensure that all casualty departments are linked to appropriate welfare and judicial services; and enable women, who are victims of violence in the family the right to chose women doctors and other medical staff at medical joints or hospitals of their choice.

vi. There is need to urge every individual to combat the negative images of women and work to challenge the reinforcement of discriminatory attitudes that foster violence against women and girls, for example, in the mass media, advertisements or school curricula.

vii. Efforts should be made to address factors that contribute to the prevalence of domestic violence against women by taking measures to promote the equality of women and counter women’s impoverishment by ensuring equal access to economic and social rights, including education, freedom of movement, property, employment and social entitlement and by political participation.

viii. Ensuring that all police stations have dedicated facilities for receiving, registering and investigating reports of violence particularly domestic violence against women in the family, while ensuring that all police officers are trained to deal effectively and appropriately with victims of violent offences in a gender-sensitive manner.

Finally, the above recommendations based on the finding of this study become necessary in order to reduce the incidence of domestic violence against women and its negative influences on family stability not only in Asaba but also in Nigeria generally. These recommendations are important because the problem of domestic violence has tremendous consequences to both the victim (woman) and other members of the family.

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APPENDIX I

PEACE AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION PROGRAM,

ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES,

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSIY OF NIGERIA, ASABA STUDY CENTRE

QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear Respondent,

This questionnaire is designed to collect information on ‘Domestic Violence against Women and its Influence on Family Stability in Asaba Metropolis’.

The questions are strictly for research purposes. The exercise is purely an academic exercise and the information supplies will be handled and treated with absolute confidentiality.

Therefore, kindly supply appropriate and accurate information by filling and ticking answers which in your own opinion are best applicable.

Your cooperation is highly appreciated.

Thank you.

Please tick where applicable.

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

1. Sex: Male Female

2. Age: (A) 18 —28 years (B) 29—39 years (C) 40 —45 years (D) 46— 55years (B) 56 years and above

3. Marital Status: (A) Singled (B) Married (C) Separated (B) Divorced

(E) Widow/Widower.

4. Religious of Respondents: (A) Christian (B) Muslim (C) Traditionalist (D) None

5. Educational Qualification of Respondents: (A) No Education (B) Primary School (C) Secondary School (D) Diploma/Certificate (B) University Education

6. Occupation: (A) Trading/Business (B) Farming (C) Civil Servant (D) Not Working (E) Others

7. Types of Homes/Living Place: (A) One Room (B) Two — Three Rooms (C) Flats (D) Duplex

8. Years in Marriage/Relationship: (A) 1 — 5 years (B) 6 — 10 years (C) 11 — 19 years (D) 20 years and above

9. Monthly Incomes (If on salary):

(A) Below N10, 000.O0 - N15, 000.OO (B) N16, 000.00 —N21, 000.00 (C) N22, 000 — N36, 000.00 (D) N37, 000.00 —N49, 000 (E) 50,000.00 and above

SECTION B

yes	No	undecided

10. Have you experienced domestic violence with your spouse?

11. Do you consider the power disparity between men and women as being responsible for violence against women in the family?

12. In your opinion, is the prevailing economic condition in the country responsible for the high incidence of violence against women in the family?

13. Would you say that the absence of strong legislation on domestic violence against women is responsible for the continue pawns of women in all hands of abusive husbands or lovers? (A) Yes (B) No (C) Don’t know

14. Do women suffer violence within families in Ibadan? A) Yes (B) No (C) Don’t know

15 If your answer to the previous question is yes, would you blame the customary practices and legislative processes for domestic violence against women? (A) Yes (B) No (C) Don’t know

16 Have you or any of your female friends experienced sexual harassment in the family?

Yes (B) No (C) Don’t know

17. Would you say that lack of respect by spouse is the major cause of domestic violence against women? (A) Yes (B) No (C) Don’t know

18. Women without male child suffer mostly from the incidence of violence in marital relationship, do you agree or disagree? (A) Agree (B) Disagree (C) No comment

19. Would you say that domestic violence against women is learned through mass media (radio, television, newspapers, films, internet, and magazines)? (A) Yes (B) No (C) Don’t know

20. Do you consider that .the high level of poverty in the country is being responsible for frequent incidence of domestic violence?

(A) Yes (B) No (C) Don’t know

21. Would you say that domestic violence against women is most frequent in polygamous families? (A) Yes (B) No (C) Don’t know

Use the following key as a guide: Strongly Agree (SD); Agree (A); strongly Disagree (SD); and Disagree (D).

22. Most children who grow up in violent homes are more likely to be victim of child abuse.

23. Children who witness incidence of domestic violence easily turn delinquent.

24. There is hardly stability in economic well beings of family members where domestic violence occurs.

25. Domestic violence against women usually affects the reproductive health of women.

26. Suggest way(s) by which domestic-violence against women can be prevented in the family.

(A) ………………………………………………………………………………

(B)………………………………………………………………….……………

(C)………………………………………………………………………………

27. In your opinion, what do you think can be done to curb the incidence of domestic violence against women in the family?

(A)………………………………………………………………………………

(B)………………………………………………………………………………

(C)………………………………………………………………………………

(D)………………………………………………………………………………

(E)………………………………………………………………………………

APPENDIX II.

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AN]) ITS INFLUENCE ON FAMILY

STABILITY IN ASABA METROPOLIS

INDEPTII INTERVIEW GUIDE

1. In your opinion, do you think that women face some problems in relationships?

(a) What are these problems?

(b) Is the issue of domestic violence against women part of the problem?

2. What do you think are the causes of these problems?

3. What measures do you think can be done to curb the incidence of domestic violence?

4. How do you think these problems affect family members?

5. What are your perceptions of domestic violence against women in the family?

6. What should the society do about the issue of domestic violence?

Conflict of Intrest

Thursday, 24 March 2016

Domestic Violence and its effects on Family stability. By Linus Ifeany, MS.C Peace and conflict Studies